Oxford News
Expert Comment: From frontier to feedback loop – Why space must become circular
Dr Yige Sun
Since 1957, when humanity first placed an artificial satellite into orbit, space has shifted from being ‘the final frontier’ to a critical domain underpinning navigation, finance, weather forecasting, disaster response, streaming and communications. More than 60% of smartphone-enabled services rely directly or indirectly on space-based assets. The global space economy is projected to reach $1.8 trillion by 2035, and in the UK alone space activity currently supports 18% of national GDP and over 55,000 jobs.
Space is no longer an empty frontier; it is now essential infrastructure, and like all infrastructure, it carries environmental consequences. But rapid commercial expansion raises a pressing question: can the space economy become circular before congestion makes it brittle?
Why has space become so crowded?
For decades, space missions have followed a linear model: launch, operate, discard. This approach was tolerable when launch frequency was low and orbital density manageable – but this is not the case now.
Orbital space is governed largely by voluntary guidelines. Disposal rules lack enforcement, and liability frameworks designed for state-led missions struggle to address today’s commercial, multi-actor environment.
Launch costs have fallen sharply over the past decade, with the cost of reaching Low Earth Orbit (LEO) plummeting from roughly $54,500/kg during the Space Shuttle era (1981-2011) to approximately $1,400/kg with the SpaceX Falcon Heavy in 2018, a 95% reduction. This has brought us into the era of the ‘mega-constellation’ – perhaps best illustrated by Starlink. As of late 2025, Starlink comprised approximately 9,400 satellites – a staggering 65% of all active satellites in orbit and roughly 52% of all mass in LEO.
With thousands of operational satellites in LEO and tens of thousands more planned, the problem is not merely aesthetic clutter. It is systemic risk. According to the European Space Agency (ESA), as of January 2026, there were about 14,200 active satellites in orbit, yet these are shadowed by over 54,000 tracked debris objects (greater than 10 cm) and an estimated 1.2 million dangerous fragments between 1cm and 10cm (with another 140 million between 1 mm to 1 cm).
Orbital debris travels at speeds of up to 10 km/s (10 to 20 times faster than a bullet), with collision speeds reaching 14–15 km/s. This means that even small fragments carry destructive energy. ESA’s Space Environment Health Index currently sits at a concerning level of 4, far exceeding the threshold of 1 required for long-term orbital sustainability.
Despite these risks, orbital space is governed largely by voluntary guidelines. Disposal rules lack enforcement, and liability frameworks designed for state-led missions struggle to address today’s commercial, multi-actor environment. This encourages risk externalization: operators deploy rapidly and long-term stewardship becomes a secondary cost.
Durability is sustainability
On Earth, circular economy principles seek to decouple growth from resource depletion through reuse, repair, remanufacture and material recovery. In orbit, this means shifting from disposable satellites to serviceable, upgradeable and recoverable assets. Recent research estimates that recovering and reusing orbital debris could unlock a net material value of between $570 billion and $1.2 trillion.
The Satellite Applications Catapult’s In-orbit Servicing, Assembly and Manufacturing (ISAM) test bed. Credit: Satellite Applications Catapult.
But circularity in space is not just about recycling debris; it is about designing systems so failure does not automatically produce debris. For instance, refuelling and modular upgrades can convert stranded assets into adaptive infrastructure. In-orbit servicing and assembly allow systems to evolve rather than be replaced wholesale. Even extending the lifetime of individual missions reduces manufacturing demand and launch frequency.
My recent work with Mr Gary Cannon and Mr Mike Curtis-Rouse at the Satellite Applications Catapult establishes that serviceable satellite and spacecraft architectures – modular systems, traceable material interfaces and robotic-compatible access points – can significantly extend operational lifetimes and enable in-orbit upgradeability. This work provides a critical link between high-level UK policy ambitions, such as the National Space Strategy (2021) and the Rendezvous and Proximity Operations Regulatory Sandbox (2025), and the actionable engineering principles required for serviceable system design. Sustainability is not an end-of-life correction, but a core requirement embedded at the design inception. By addressing these vulnerabilities early, satellites can be transformed from disposable units into maintainable infrastructure assets.
Life-cycle thinking must begin before launch. The environmental footprint of a satellite is embedded in material extraction, cleanroom fabrication and launch emissions. These decisions must be integrated at the architecture stage rather than retrofitted later.
Additionally, there is a burgeoning market for approaches that harness in-space manufacturing; reusing and servicing satellites already in orbit and – in the future – manufacturing new materials directly in space that benefit from the microgravity environment. This sector generated $4.4 billion in revenue in 2023 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 20% from 2024 to 2032.
Beyond hardware: The governance challenge
There is a burgeoning market for approaches that harness in-space manufacturing; reusing and servicing satellites already in orbit and – in the future – manufacturing new materials directly in space.
But the challenge is not merely engineering; it is institutional design.
Legal frameworks built in 1967 (Outer Space Treaty) and 1972 (Liability Convention) were not designed for proximity operations, robotic servicing or shared orbital infrastructure. Governance lag creates uncertainty for investors and discourages adoption of circular practices.
Without regulatory clarity, circular practices remain voluntary, allowing competing actors to externalize costs. A circular space economy requires enforceable disposal norms, transparent debris tracking, clearer liability allocation and incentives that reward life extension over replacement.
The economic logic for circularity is already clear. As satellite deployment accelerates, congestion imposes a ‘debris tax’ through increased manoeuvres, insurance premiums and shortened operational lifetimes. In 2025 alone, Starlink satellites executed approximately 300,000 collision avoidance manoeuvres, a 50% increase from 2024, demonstrating the immense fuel and management burden of a hyper-congested environment. The World Economic Forum projects that debris-related costs could reach $42.3 billion over the next decade if unmitigated. Circular design reduces exposure to these risks by stabilising the shared orbital environment.
Space is the next internet
Space has evolved into a critical layer of global infrastructure. Infrastructure that cannot circulate resources, manage risk and renew itself ultimately collapses under its own growth.
Much like the early internet, space activity is now expanding beyond its initial boundaries in LEO, with lunar communications networks, logistics platforms and resource extraction under active discussion. If linear extraction models are exported beyond Earth before circular governance frameworks mature, congestion and conflict risks may scale with expansion.
Sustainability in space is not about slowing innovation. It is about preventing systemic fragility.
Space is no longer an experimental domain. It has evolved into a critical layer of global infrastructure. Infrastructure that cannot circulate resources, manage risk and renew itself ultimately collapses under its own growth.
Space circularity is therefore not environmental idealism. It is strategic self-preservation.
You can read the report ‘Technical Considerations for Serviceable Spacecraft’ co-authored by Dr Yige Sun, here.
For more information about this story or republishing this content, please contact [email protected]
GK Barry and Reverend Richard Coles appeared on the 24th series of I’m a Celebrity…Get Me Out of Here in 2024.
GK and Rev Coles “struck up the best of friendships” while on the ITV reality show, one they have continued outside the jungle.
ITV axes GK Barry and Rev Richard Coles series
The pair had begun work on a new ITV series themed around life and death.
Speaking to Attitude Magazine, GK said: “We are exploring walks of life from two different generations — one from a gay godly man and a gay ungodly woman.
“There are some depressing bits in there, but one thing about me is that I will make a joke about it.”
A pilot episode for the series was filmed last year.
However, the new series has now been axed by ITV, according to The Sun.
An insider said: “There were high hopes for the project because producers were excited by the dynamic between GK and Richard, not least because it seemed to amuse viewers.
“They enjoyed the idea of the wise older man interacting with the streetwise millennial as they explored some pretty deep subjects.
“But after provisional filming took place, it was decided not to proceed with it as a series — much to the disappointment of everyone involved.”
GK had previously said it had been a “dream” working with Rev Coles on the series.
On Instagram, she said: “Working with you has opened my eyes to worlds I’d never heard of or dreamt of before.
“Some of them have been nightmares, but some of them have been dreams — and today has been a dream.”
ITV has been contacted for comment.
Freeview channel axed 2 years after relaunch
Meanwhile, News UK’s live streaming opinion channel, Talk, has been axed as part of the latest Freeview update.
Talk originally broadcast as TalkTV on channel 237 from April 2022, with 24-hour news and opinion programming.
Its most high-profile programme was Piers Morgan Uncensored, which later moved to YouTube, though Channel 5 continues to broadcast highlight segments.
TalkTV was eventually relaunched as Talk, a visual radio stream, on Freeview channel 280 in April 2024.
The change came after the channel struggled to attract viewers and ran up losses for News UK, according to RXTV.
News UK still operates similar visual streams for TalkSport and Times Radio.
Were you looking forward to GK Barry and Rev Richard Coles’ new ITV series? Let us know in the poll above or in the comments below.
The 41-year-old pop icon was due to perform at Werchter Boutique festival in Belgium last night, Saturday, June 28, when the event was unexpectedly cut short.
The festival’s committee decided to end the day’s performances early, at 9pm just after a set from Pitbull, due to a weather forecast of ‘severe thunderstorms from midnight onwards at the earliest’ and a government warning.
READ MORE: Jeremy Clarkson’s pub staff ‘walk out after many problems’
Perry wrote on Instagram: “Sadly my set at Werchter Boutique tonight can’t happen due to a government mandated cancellation because of the incoming inclement weather and crowd safety concerns.
“I was backstage at the show in the middle of hair and makeup when this news was delivered, and they gave me no choice.
“I am just as unhappy as you are. Unfortunately this is beyond my control, but the safety of all 55,000 of you always comes first and foremost.”
The performance was due to mark the popstar’s return to the one-day event held in Belgium’s Festivalpark for the first time in more than 15 years.
READ MORE: Sara Cox in new venture as UK charity collapses with £430k owed
Perry added: “I am sorry I can’t change the weather, and even sorrier that all of us can’t be together tonight. I was looking forward to being back after 17 years, I was even gonna wear the same outfit from that 2009 show again. I love you all, and please get home safe.”
It comes just a week before the star’s next scheduled festival appearance, at the brand-new Blenheim Festival in Wodostock, Oxfordshire, where she is due to perform on July 4.
The current forecast for that date is sunny skies and temperatures in the mid-20s.
CAN you imagine summer without the sight of bumblebees buzzing from flower to flower, or a summer lunch without juicy tomatoes or strawberries?
If we don’t help our wild bees, this could be a glimpse of the future.
Our bees are in trouble.
Bees pollinate flowers, but also many of our favourite food crops, equivalent to every third mouthful of food we eat.
But they’re losing the habitat and plants they need to survive.
In the countryside, 97 per cent of lowland meadow has already been lost and the dramatic decrease in suitable habitats isn’t just confined to rural areas.
Gardens used to act as ‘green corridors’ for wildlife to move around towns and cities, and into and out of urban areas, but are increasingly being paved over or even covered with fake grass – with no real plants at all.
Helping bees is easy though.
Anyone can take action to help wild bees whether you have a wall for vertical planting, window box, or back garden.
It’s easy to plant a bee haven and fun choosing between bee-friendly beauties like borage, foxglove and honeysuckle.
There are 15 million gardens in the UK.
Put together they cover an area that’s seven times the size of the Isle of Wight.
If we all made our gardens more bee-friendly it would have a huge impact on our wild bees.
So, what should you plant in your garden?
Bees need a supply of pollen and nectar throughout the year, from late winter/early spring when some emerge from their winter hibernation right through until the end of the year.
Plant a selection of perennials, such as bergamot, globe thistle and knapweeds, for pollen through the summer.
These will provide bees with food year after year.
Add a few annuals each year, such as borage, cornflower and sunflower for variety.
Later in the autumn, hebe and ivy provide food when summer plants have gone to seed.
Then make sure you’ve got a few winter-flowering crocuses and hellebores to help bees as they emerge on warmer winter or early spring days in need of food after their winter hibernation.
Did you know there are around 250 species of bee in the UK?
Just one species of bee, the honeybee, actually makes honey.
Then there are bumblebees, which are familiar to most of us, and many different kinds of solitary bee.
Solitary bees are fantastic pollinators for our garden plants.
They don’t live in colonies, but instead the females make their own nest without any ‘workers’ to help them.
Some make their nests in gaps in the walls of old buildings or dig holes in bare ground (look for small piles of earth with a tiny hole in the middle).
You can help some species of solitary bee in your garden by providing a ‘bee hotel’.
Cut lengths of old bamboo and tie together, or drill long holes in old pieces of wood.
Hang somewhere sunny and sheltered and, in time, the bees will move in.
The exposed cliffs at BBOWT’s Dry Sandford Pit nature reserve near Abingdon are a haven for many types of solitary bee, which burrow into the soft, sandy layers.
Look for the ‘honeycomb’ of tiny holes.
You may see the UK’s newest bumblebee in your garden – the tree bumblebee.
These were first recorded here in 2001 but they’ve now spread throughout much of England and Wales.
They have a distinctive ginger-coloured back (thorax) and black and white abdomen.
Some make their homes in old bird nest boxes as they prefer to nest above the ground.
Help ensure our bees’ survival by making your garden bee-friendly this summer.
You’ll be making a real difference to our bees and helping to ensure our summer strawberries are here to stay.
Find out more about bees and how to help them at bbowt.org.uk/different-kinds-bees.
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